(2003). Two distinctive views of this connection can be identified (Collard, 2006). The dynamic culture of Effects of cultural diversity on in-class communication and student project team dynamics: Creating synergy in the diverse classroom. M. Personal or student reference I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Benefit library's collection Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, Affiliation The processes of cultural change in schools have been considered extensively in the literature (e.g. Qiang, H. Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which principals have the power to influence: Fundamental beliefs and assumptions, or the things that people at your school consider to be true. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. Effective. Day E. (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. C Changing our schools : linking school effectiveness and school improvement. A. Leader and leadership development may therefore be as effectively focused on teacher leaders as on principals in these two countries. As a consequence, leaders must be equipped to work with both imported as well as indigenous culture. In crafting school culture, school leaders (principals, teachers, and parents) act as models, potters, poets, actors, and healers. Walker, A. If leaders believe that a dominant culture is identifiable or achievable, and that it is a single, stable and unifying phenomenon, then changing it becomes a matter of choice, but relatively straightforward and without any moral ramifications. A preparation for school leadership: International perspectives. British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363386. (1999). According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. At the interface with exogenous and endogenous cultures, preparation and development reflect choices which are more than technical. Training and educating principals for such cultural literacy is the focus of later sections in this chapter. (1997). Firstly, it examines key theoretical models and perspectives on culture. Decisions to encourage acceptance or critique of the dominant culture and its effect lie at the moral heart of supporting the education of leaders. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. Louque, A. Walnut Elementary 625 N. Walnut St. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2369. There is also a preference to face facts whether positive or negative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bolam This may be due in part to the fact that understanding culture and its connection to leadership in education is a poorly researched field. , & (2005). UCEA. (1996). Shah, S. , Conflict and change. (Eds. An example of the cultural challenges that emerge from this has been described by Hallinger and Kantamara (2001) in the context of Thailand. Cultural diversity and group work effectiveness. C. Diversity and the demands of leadership. & (Hargreaves 1995; Maslowski 2001, pp. Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. For the purposes of this chapter, these two snapshots highlight issues that result from consideration of culture, such as who are the primary leaders and how might the leadership theory used in their development be shaped in response to differing ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions? This unique culture will reveal itself through a number of institutional characteristics: While these representations are identifiable and mostly tangible, the illusiveness of the concept of culture lies in the fact that it is an holistic concept which is more than the sum of these component parts. For example, culture is suggested to both shape and reflect values (Begley & Wong, 2001), philosophy (Ribbins & Zhang, 2004), gender (Celikten, 2005), religion (Sapre & Ranade, 2001), politics (Hwang, 2001), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998) and history (Wong, 2001). The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. El Nemr, M. The design of curriculum and delivery is therefore to an extent a cultural guessing game requiring those responsible for preparation and development to hold a high level of cultural fluency themselves and to support the development of cultural fluency in others. P. W. (Eds. Any research which attempts to map such differences in concept and practice will face severe methodological challenges. Brunner The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). . Transactional leadership, often viewed negatively in many Anglophone countries, may be a more appropriate theoretical basis in many contexts. New York: Teachers College Press. (1996). (2003). School culture can have an positive. Wang, H. Trond We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. Ogawa , & ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Changing the culture of a school or of a leadership development program is therefore not a finite endeavor. (1986). Walker, A. Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. Lumby, J. E. V. Velsor, E. V. Walker, A. We consider later in this chapter the implications of this for the professional development of lead-ers within educational institutions. Aitken, R. Archer, M. (2004). International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: Does it perceive itself as dominant, submissive, harmonizing or searching out a niche within its operational environment? Collard, J. & (2001). Such a perspective suggests that the dominant culture, were it to be discerned with any certainty, would be embedded, unexamined and therefore unchallenged, in preparation and development programs. Prasad, P. In Saudi Arabia a command system is accepted by culture and tradition and schools have, in any case, little power to take decisions. At first sight these components of culture may be thought to be significantly outside the control of schools themselves. (1996). A perspective on women principals in Turkey. ), Effective educational leadership (pp. , Good schools of this were 1965 the context of change a story of change - the Halton effective school project school effectiveness can inform school improvement the possibilities and challenges of school improvement school . Farrar, E. Cultural fluency will be predicated on more than cognitive effort (Lakomski, 2001). Hodgkinson, C. | Free trial Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. In the absence of a similarly complex or authoritative study of the cultural factors in educational leadership, the design of much preparation and development seems to adhere to an assumed commonality and to avoid detailed engagement with the culturally contingent (Lumby et al., forthcoming), resulting in an international curriculum for school leadership preparation (Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. Finally, we identify key issues and areas for future research. (Throughout, the term development is used to indicate both pre-appointment preparation and the post-appointment on-going development of leaders.) (2001). & Lopez, G. R. Cultural processes, the second element of a systems perspective, will be reflected in almost every dimension of the operation of the school. Mentoring is therefore flavored by ease and acceptance of the views of seniors but sensitivity to negative feedback. Schein, E. H. Just as there is an interplay between culture and modes of delivery, assessment may also be rendered more or less effective by the degree of cultural fit. As within continents or regions, within each nation, a common culture cannot be assumed, the differences between the culture of Native Americans, Hispanic and African American women and that of white males within the United States being an example given above. The implication is that if leadership preparation and development is to aspire to cultural fit, a high degree of sophistication is required. Gronn, P. (1999). Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. The school leader is therefore at the fulcrum point, subject to exogenous effects of culture, refracted in part through his or her leadership development and personal cultural locus, and in turn engaging with endogenous culture in the school and its community. The aim is to encourage leaders to address obliviousness to their own culture and challenge approaches which may inappropriately embed a single culture and/or a culture alien to some participants. (1999). She argues that a school's culture 'is shaped by the history, context, and the people in it ' (p. . If culture embeds, among other things, power relations, then the issue of programs matching or challenging dominant cultures becomes a matter of negotiating competing notions of appropriate power relations, political and social structures. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. Bottery asserts that there is a risk through this that there may be emerging a perspective that defines what looks increasingly like a global picture of management practice. Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. (2004) also found evidence of 35 aspects of leadership which are culturally specific, for example, the degree to which compassion, status-consciousness, autonomy and domination are perceived to contribute to effective leadership is culturally contingent. In fact, Hofstedes work shows very great variation within regions. The concept of culture has appeared frequently in analyses of both. Culture is so rooted in all aspects of human activity that its all encompassing nature may limit its usefulness in practice to conceptualizing leadership and shaping the development of leaders. A similar situation is the case in Norway and in Japan (Moller, 2000). Deciding which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in the design and delivery of development, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures; Deciding how best to equip leaders with intercultural competence, so that they in their turn can decide which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in their school leadership, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures. School Culture Edited by: Jon Prosser Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd Publication year: 1999 Online pub date: June 19, 2012 Discipline: Education Subject: Social/Philosophical Foundations, School Culture & Climate, Sociology of Education (general) DOI: https:// doi. Rather, in leadership every person has a role to play (Bryant, 1998, p. 12) undertaking a leadership act as need and personal understanding or skill require. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Schein (1985, p.6) considers the basic essence of an organisation's culture to be: , , & Cranston, N. Sierra Vista Elementary 1800 E. Whittier Boulevard La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2359. & Mabey Culture can then be viewed in shorthand as: Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design. (2001, October). , , In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. Redefining the field of European human resource management: a battle between national mindsets and forces of business transition? Hallinger, P. But what is an ineffective school? & London: Sage. This suggests that they are prepared, appointed and developed to reflect a specific set of values and beliefs and are expected to simply transmit those imposed and inherited values to staff and to pupils within their institution. (Eds. Imperial Middle School 1450 S. Schoolwood Dr. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2344. Walker, A. Mller (2004). In Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. Sports. & T. Scheins model provides a greater level of sophistication by focusing on a challenging interrogation of the culture of the school and linking culture more strongly to underpinning values and beliefs. The chapter considers five main themes. The International Journal of Educational Management, 15(2), 6877. Education researchers have also assumed such common attributes, for example, integrity (Begley, 2004; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997). , Ribbins (2006). Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . Kantamara, P. & Every school, for example, has a specific geographical and social location which will strongly shape its cultural context the inner city school serving a diverse multi-ethnic community will inherit a diversity of cultures that may be quite different to those of the suburban middle class school. His ideas were widely influential. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . Collard (2006), for example, contends that much of the global level educational development through programs of agencies such as UNESCO and the World Bank is based on an import model which he portrays as a tidal wave of western values, sweeping away existing cultural environments. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 321332. ), The Life and Work of Teachers (pp. Analysis of the content of programs might suggest that such commitment is largely camouflage for neglect of such values (Lopez, 2003; Rusch, 2004). Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. (1982). (2005). & One consequence is that there is currently no precise means of assessing dimensions variously labeled as cultural distance or degree of diversity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 107) or diversity amount and diversity degree (Thomas, 1999; Taras & Rowney, 2007); that is the differences between the culture of one location of leader development and another, or the extent of cultural differences within a leader development group. Choices will continue as culture evolves and the perspectives of all players mutate over time. (1971). School culture and culture in general are often labeled as self-evident. The attempt to mould culture in any direction involves alignment with some and challenge to others. (2007). Find Washington Middle School test scores, student-teacher ratio, parent reviews and teacher stats. School administration in China: a look at the principals role. Whittier Christian High School is a highly rated, private, Christian school located in LA HABRA, CA. Paul, J. London: Paul Chapman. Heck, R. In terms of cultural outputs school leaders need to understand both what the external societies expect from the school and what they wish to achieve themselves this will require an integration of their personal and professional values, their vision of the purpose of schooling, and the visions and values of the key external stakeholders. , & & London: Paul Chapman. Preparation of aspiring principals in Singapore: a partnership model. & Macro Relations: Culture and Globalization, Culture and Leadership Global Perspectives, Preparing Leadership for Cultural Fluency, Culture and Leadership Issues and Future Research, International Handbook on the Preparation and Development of School Leaders, Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming, House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, http://www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/Links/process.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Tippeconic.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Walker.pdf, conceptually, through the ideas that are valued and promoted, verbally, through the language, terminology and discourses in use, behaviorally, through the activities, social interactions and rituals that occur, visually, through the designs and styles adopted by the organization in its physical and material components. Metaphorically culture is like the air we breathe; all around us, vital, and yet difficult to discern and to change. Although researchers are just beginning to document the effectiveness of the PLC culture, early indications show that it has a significant positive effect on student learning (Lee & Smith, 1996; Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll et al., 2006; Wiley, 2001). Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(1), 3035. Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions. Cultural inputs have many facets these will include the external cultural context (society, community and economy at local, regional and national scales), and the cultures brought to the school by all those engaging with it (teachers, parents, pupils, for example). This book assists people inside and outside schools to . Moral leadership in education: an Indian perspective. Hanges The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. Each of the cultures influences and is influenced by each of the others. Crossing the great divides: problems of cultural diffusion for leadership in education. (2001). In parallel, preparation and development sometimes include an element of raising awareness of cultures deemed to be other than that of the majority or the dominant group, what Stier (2003, p. 84) refers to as content-competencies, generally targeted at increasing knowledge of minority groups within the region or nation. Hallinger (Eds. House ), Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective, Peabody Journal of Education, Litvin, D. R. Leaders interact with culture at the organizational level both in terms of efforts to include the multiple cultures which may be present and also to sustain, adapt or change the dominant culture. Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. (2003). Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. Kaur Hayers, P. (forthcoming). (1996). Everyone expects superiors to enjoy privileges, and status symbols are very important. Hodgkinson (2001) argues that culture is always determining, subliminally and subconsciously, our value orientation and judgments. They may also tackle the issue of how culture can be managed. Tin, L. V. Similarly, the selection of teaching staff provides at least an implicit and possibly an explicit mechanism of shaping a key cultural input into the school. Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). Stier insists that the latter cannot be achieved by content competencies alone. Stoll & Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change . Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Educational Management & Administration, Billot, J. Conflicting expectations, demands and desires. It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. One dimension of fit may relate to ease with receiving positive and negative feedback and from whom. A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. Hofstede (2003) has argued strongly that there are measurable differences between the cultures of nations. R. (2007). McCauley typology of Rosenholtz (1989) differentiates static and dynamic school culture. (1996). | Contact us | Help & FAQs There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. Fullan, M. International Studies in Educational Administration. A person in charge is not required. Watch Events 3 Live Search by typing your school, event, association. The project established 21 common perceived effective leadership attributes and behaviors within the 57 participating nations, providing evidence of widespread assumptions about leadership. (2003). While the analytical models described are helpful in conceptualizing the nature of culture, there are a number of key issues for leaders to recognize in reflecting on their own organizations. Buckingham: Open University Press. P. J. They suggest the spiritual values embedded in the teaching of Vivekananda, Tagore and Ghandi would provide a more culturally appropriate basis for the leadership of education than the currently Western values which relate in part to the colonial history of the nation. His critique suggests that there is insufficient time given in such an approach to understanding existing cultures, both at a general level and in terms of the underpinning key components and variables, and the consequence is cultural imperialism. Bell Educators would be extremely concerned to consider fully the implications of assessing school students against standards imported from another nation. (1985). This paper's focus is school culture as 10. Deal, T. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. & Bajunid., 2005; Sapre & Ranade, 2001; Walker, 2006; Wong, 2001), and faith (Shah, 2006). Bottery, M. Gupta Stoll and Fink identified 10 cultural norms that influence school improvement (see summary in Panel 2). Leithwood, K. (1995). (Eds. Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. Much of it has been misdirected and some of it wasteful. C. Two typologies are developed. Hoppe (2004) believes US leaders have little difficulty in receiving negative feedback. Javidan It will therefore involve engagement with the moral choices which lie at the heart of leadership. This paper's . & He suggests that schools are bastions of conservatism, not centers of social experimentation. Much leadership theory reflects Anglophone and particularly US culture which Hoppe (2004, p. 335) suggests is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitarian, performance derived, comfortable with change, and action-and-data-oriented. Watch online from home or on the go. (Eds. School culture, school effectiveness and school improvement. 17). However, his analysis of national culture has been abused to support stereotypical views and crude dichotomies, such as between Western cultures and those of Asia. Matching culture to preparation and development engages with what is perceived to be universal, what appears to be distinctive to the region or nation or group of people, and what is unique to the individual. Bryant, M. Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). Hanges House, R. Hallinger (2001) notes the changing aims of Asian education and specifically the global standards applied to assessing the quality of education in Hong Kong. Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development.
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