The Crusades were actually launched by. "Epigraphic South Arabian". Jamme 635. Pre-Islamic Arabia[1] (Arabic: ) refers to the Arabian Peninsula before the emergence of Islam in 610 CE. The ancient Kingdom of Awsn in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at agar Yairr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wd Bayn, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named ajar Asfal. Describe Mecca around the time of Muhammad's birth. They have been identified with the Selappayu in Akkadian records, and a clue to their origin is their use of desert kites and game traps, first attested to in around 7,000 BCE, which makes them the pre-Semitic inhabitants of Arabia. 12.5 Political Structure in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6 Social Structures in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6.1 Tribal Structure and Leadership 12.6.2 Inequality and Slavery 12.6.3 The Elite Camel Nomads 12.6.4 Intra-Tribal Warfare 12.7 Economic Conditions 12.7.1 Camel Nomadism 12.7.2 Agriculture in Arabia 12.7.3 Industry and Mining in Arabia Miniature gate; Zafar, Yemen, 2rd-3rd century AD. The religious, social, political and economical climates of seventh century Arabia, also known as pre-Islamic Arabia, contributed immensely to the emergence of Islam. The Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. The kingdom was attacked by Antiochus III the Great in 205-204 BCE, though it seems to have survived. Product filter button Description Contents Resources Courses About the Authors This book delves into the political and cultural developments of pre-Islamic Arabia, focusing on the religious attitudes of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula and its northern extension into the Syrian desert. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The Sasanians' ally; the Lakhmids, were also Christian Arabs, but from what is now Iraq. One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly Crusaders who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin. According to Herodotus, Cambyses did not subdue the Arabs when he attacked Egypt in 525 BCE. However, in the early epic "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta", the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled". But before that let me parcel an interesting side of . [70][71][72], During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished, generating much wealth and prosperity. Religious climates were one of the causes of the emergence of Islam. [63] The name translates to 'region of the Qataris' in Syriac. Of these the most remarkable was the existence of a belief in Allah as the Supreme God (Q. [44] Ares was also worshipped by the ancient Baharna and the Greek empires. Those peoples may have engaged in trade across the Red Sea with speakers of Cushitic or Nilo-Saharan. Mecca was a sort of religious center at the time of Muhammad's birth, as there was an annual pilgrimage to it by Arabs for religious reasons. Arab traditions relating to the origins and classification of the Arabian tribes is based on biblical genealogy. b. the ulama. After the demise of the Lakhmids, another army was sent to Yemen, making it a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian satrap. Zaheerul Islam, Guest lecturer, Deptt. "Dmt" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., sfn error: no target: CITEREFRohmerCharloux2015 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFAl-Ansary1999 (, D. H. Mller, Al-Hamdani, 53, 124, W. Caskel, Entdeckungen In Arabien, Koln, 1954, S. 9. When the military stalemate was finally broken and it seemed that Byzantium had finally gained the upper hand in battle, nomadic Arabs invaded from the desert frontiers, bringing with them a new social order that emphasized religious devotion over tribal membership. "State and Society in Pre-Islamic Arabia." In The Early Islamic Conquests. Outraged, Kaleb, the Christian King of Aksum with the encouragement of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I invaded and annexed Yemen. a- Books Purchased from Paragraph Bookstore, McGill College Avenue Mahmood Ibrahim, "Social and Economic . This site was first proposed by Robert Ernest Cheesman in 1924. Arab polytheism, the dominant belief system, was based on the belief in deities and other supernatural beings such as djinn. To imply that the Byzantine and Persian Empires were so strong at the time that it was unlikely for them to be conquered, especially by the Arabs, To imply that, in hindsight, it was clear that the Arabs were likely to unify into a strong empire, To imply that the world was ripe for conquest, but that someone making predictions at the time would not have expected Arabia to be the source of that conquest, Either empire would be eager to adopt Islam as its state religion in order to get the help of the Arabs in this ongoing struggle, Muhammad would be able to pit one against the other because of their mutual distrust, By exhausting each other, they both became vulnerable to attack by the Islamic Empire emerging out of Arabia in the mid-7th century. It is currently unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under Sassanid Persian control after 300 CE. The Byzantines' official religion was Orthodox Christianity, which believed that Jesus Christ and God were two natures within one entity. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. Jadis and Tasm perished because of genocide. The Nabataean origins remain obscure. Md. Pre-Islamic Arabia. [91] An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. [102] A grasp of the geography of Arabia, therefore, is necessary . Oman and the United Arab Emirates comprised the ecclesiastical province known as Beth Mazunaye. From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the Parthians and Sassanids. [47] Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests. political, economic and social conditions of past generations, but it is in large part determined by them." 1 So, it might be of interest at the beginning of our study to sketch briefly the international status of . The drive into Persian territory would also put an end to tribute payments to the Sasanians, which resulted in an agreement to give 11,000lb (5,000kg) of tribute to the Persians annually in exchange for a ceasefire.[113]. Pliny the Elder (lust. [33], Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Jahiliyyah period and the Arabs were deeply rooted in sins and immoralities. 2. Socio Economic Conditions of Pre Islamic Arabia Introduction If we visualize modern day Arabia, it will be in the image of barren lands, camels, red sands and oil production. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, etc. Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. [42][60] The name, meaning 'ewe-fish' would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /leh/ 'lamb' (Strong's 2924). Unlimited polygamy- limited to maximum of four wives in Islam all of whom have to be treated equally. Many small kingdoms prospered from Red sea and Indian Ocean trade. Hadramaut annexed Qataban in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. Direct link to David Alexander's post Moses and Abraham, in the, Posted 3 years ago. Direct link to Talha Ahmed's post Yes, when the various tri, Posted 3 years ago. The great religious shrine of both pre-Muslim and Muslim Arabia is called the _____. Posted 5 years ago. The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in south west Arabian Peninsula; from 2000 BC to the 8th century BC. Most people from Makkah earned money by trading, money lending or being . c. Muslim fundamentalists. The Persian king Khosrau I sent troops under the command of Vahriz (Persian: ), who helped the semi-legendary Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan to drive the Aksumites out of Yemen. Immortality: many practices went on in pre Islamic Arabia which are considered immoral by the standards of Islam which included; Idol worship - commits sins of shirk. The first known inscriptions of the Kingdom of Hadhramaut are known from the 8th century BC. Imru' al-Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in Arabia. Additionally, from the second half of the second millennium BCE,[3] Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the Sabaeans, Minaeans, and Eastern Arabia was inhabited by Semitic speakers who presumably migrated from the southwest, such as the so-called Samad population. Gadarat (GDRT) of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. As a frontier province, it included a desert area of northeastern Arabia populated by the nomadic Saraceni. Of Arabic, Gauhati University, Assam. Limestone sculpture from pre-Islamic Yemen that represents a ram. [116] This disagreement proved irreconcilable and resulted[when?] Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) In pre-Islamic Arabia, women's status varied widely according to the laws and cultural norms of the tribes in which they lived. The founder of the dynasty was 'Amr and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Direct link to Saravalenciatorres's post Describe Mecca around the, Posted 3 years ago. [12], The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Eastern Arabia were mainly Aramaic, Arabic and to some degree Persian speakers while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language. [19][20][21] The Zoroastrians of Eastern Arabia were known as "Majoos" in pre-Islamic times. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian peninsula has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. This suggests that Darius might have conquered this part of Arabia[92] or that it was originally part of another province, perhaps Achaemenid Babylonia, but later became its own province. The economy of Pre-Islamic Arabia, specifically Mecca's economy, had many pros and cons. "[55] The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. 23:84-89; 31:25), coupled with the belief in the existence of angels and jinn. [53][54] This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Arad, Bahrain, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples. The religion of Palmyra, which belongs to the Aramaic sphere, is excluded from this account. Because of the Mycenaean motifs on what is referred to as Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall,[6] Peter Parr,[7] and Beno Rothenberg[8] have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. Though the civilization was indigenous and the royal inscriptions were written in a sort of proto-Ethiosemitic, there were also some Sabaean immigrants in the kingdom as evidenced by a few of the Dmt inscriptions.[74][75]. [108][109] Buddhism is also but rarely practiced as well. Arabia was a highly tribal land governed by tribal politics 29. . The proverb "They were scattered like the people of Saba" refers to that exodus in history. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. There were no signs of order or union in Western Europe, , and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction, . d. Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Petra or Sela was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. Their first capital was Qaryat Dht Khil, today known as Qaryat Al-Fw.[96]. 'Amr bin Luayy played a vital role in changing the religious conditions in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Because each of the chapters in the volume is organised according to its own logic, there is some overlap across them. The emergence of Islam as a universalist religion and a centralising political movement led to and necessitated three inter related social developments in early Islamic society (as compared to pre-IslamicArabian society), which are relevant to our discussion of the situation of women. This overlap, however, provides opportunity for interactivity between chapters and . In the 1st century BC it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. "[43] The Greek historian, Theophrastus, states that much of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon. [23][24], The Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre[25] which at the height of its power controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. Sources of history include archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholarsespecially in the pre-Islamic poemsand the adth, plus a number of ancient Arab documents that survived into medieval times when portions of them were cited or recorded. to 1300 C.E. This book collects a diverse range of ancient texts and inscriptions for the history especially of the northern region during this time period. . Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 AD. Wells paints a picture of the global context. We will write a custom Essay on The State of Religion in Pre-islamic Arabia specifically for you. 32) says it was 5 miles in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt. Bedouin Arabs were usually proud of three things regarding their enemies. [99], Cambridge linguist and anthropologist Roger Blench sees the Solubba as the last survivors of Palaeolithic hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. During the Late Byzantine or Early Islamic periods, the administrative borderlines were imposed by geographic rather than political considerations. The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. The pre-Islamic period was the darkest age in human history. Copy. The emigrants were from the southern Arab tribe of Azd of the Kahlan branch of Qahtani tribes. The Himyarites rebelled against Qataban and eventually united Southwestern Arabia (Hejaz and Yemen), controlling the Red Sea as well as the coasts of the Gulf of Aden. Mr Pahary (Islamic Religion And Culture (2068) & Islamic Studies (9013)) Page 1 Pre Islamic Arabia Tribal / Political System in Arabia before Islam. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he awarded their chief with the titles of patrician, phylarch, and king the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. They participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert.[93]. "Singh, Nagendra", "International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties", "(India: 2005)", "75", Last edited on 11 February 2023, at 10:51, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Southern Arabian Desert Trade Routes, Frankincense, Myrrh, and the Ubar Legend", "Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations", "Qal'at al-Bahrain Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun", "Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southeastern Arabia", "AUB academics awarded $850,000 grant for project on the Syriac writers of Qatar in the 7th century AD", "Christianity in the Gulf during the first centuries of Islam", "Yemen's history and its originality:Report. Arabian religion, polytheistic beliefs and practices that existed in Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 7th century ce. The rise of merchant capital in Mecca conditioned the development of Meccan social, economic, religious, and political structure. Political Islam. Yes, when the various tribes and kingdoms were conquered, fighting and war would be the last resort. The adjective "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.[30]. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern Syria. c. the sale of the woman to her husband in exchange for a dowry. These revelations were . Both empires were permanently weakened by the pandemic as their citizens struggled to deal with death as well as heavy taxation, which increased as each empire campaigned for more territory. 700 BCE and provided irrigation for about 25,000 acres (101km2) of land[76] and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect. It left both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires exhausted and susceptible to third-party attacks, particularly from nomadic Arabs united under a newly formed religion. Their other important city was Yathill (now known as Baraqish). Arabian Peninsula itself had two political zones. The success of the kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including frankincense and myrrh. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. Arabia is here understood in the broad sense of the term to include the confines of the Syrian Desert. [95] The Kindites established a kingdom in Najd in central Arabia unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Arabian polytheism was, according to Islamic tradition, the dominant form of religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, based on veneration of deities and spirits. BIBLIOGRAPHY THE STATE OF RELIGION IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA The period in the Arabian history which preceded the birth of Islam is known as the Times of Ignorance. [52] Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Eastern Arabia. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the spice trade. A. Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1991), p13. d. an informal agreement between two individuals. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the Tihama. The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an ecclesiastical province, except for a short period during the mid-to-late seventh century. And such a prophecy would not have been an altogether vain one, . On the similarity of sounds, Jerome suggested a connection with the tribe Nebaioth mentioned in Genesis, but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. Think about how these connections might have influenced the adoption of Islam. Before the ByzantineSassanid War of 602628, the Plague of Justinian had erupted (541-542), spreading through Persia and into Byzantine territory. Introduction. Pre-Islamic Arabia. The weakened condition of the Byzantine and Persian empires B . d and Thamud perished because of their decadence. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Arabian peninsula is the cradle of Islam. Here, China has become more willing to share sensitive military technology and cooperate in research and development with regional partners in the Middle East. Pre - Islamic Arabia. People lived in that age described themselves as being uncivilized; the powerful oppressed the weak, there were no laws in society, and bloodshed was so common and normal. Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The ancient Kingdom of Awsan with a capital at Hagar Yahirr in the wadi Markha, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Hagar Asfal. [82] The Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe. [101] Werner Caskel criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of al-as being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the Wahhabis. The Sabaean kingdom was located in Yemen, and its capital, Ma'rib, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital, Sana'a. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 7. Islam, essentially Arabian in nature, whatever superficial external influences may have affected it, is Arabia's outstanding contribution to world civilization. However, the ruling group violated the treaty by attacking the muslims. ), so it was not known in great detail. University of Chicago Press. Arabia would have seemed what it had been for times immemorial, , the refuge of small and bickering nomadic tribes, . It is thought that the Qedarites were eventually subsumed into the Nabataean state after their rise to prominence in the 2nd century CE. There common language was Arabic, There was no political unity among them. Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire broke its alliance with the Lakhmids due to false accusations that the Lakhmids' leader had committed treason; the Sasanians annexed the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. Support Let's Talk Religion on Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/letstalkreligionOr through a one-time donation: https://www.paypal.com/paypalme/letstalkrelig. vi. [79][80] The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king Malkkarib Yuhamin or more likely the Christian Esimiphaios (Samu Yafa').[81]. However, Justinian could not afford further losses in Arabia. However, denominational disagreements about God forced a schism in the alliances. Gods and goddesses were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca. Actually pre-Islamic Arabia was like a checkerboard in which any point could be reached by any route. Pre-Islamic Arabia. [114] By the late 6th century, an uneasy peace remained until disagreements erupted between the mercenaries and their patron empires. Islam. Political Conditions The most remarkable feature of the political life of Arabia before Islam was the total absence of political organization in any form. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and North Africa. of pre-Islamic Arabia is irrelevant to the subject . H.G. Pergamon Museum (Berlin). The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother: For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives. Around the time of Muhammad's birth, Mecca was a prosperous trading city in the desert, which basically means that it had lots of merchants. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. Pre Islamic Arabia was the period before the coming of Islam in Arabia. Politico-Notional . 12.5 Political Structure in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6 Social Structures in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6.1 Tribal Structure and Leadership 12.6.2 Inequality and Slavery 12.6.3 The Elite Camel Nomads 12.6.4 Intra-Tribal Warfare 12.7 Economic Conditions 12.7.1 Camel Nomadism 12.7.2 Agriculture in Arabia 12.7.3 Industry and Mining in Arabia Curtis E. Larsen. Instead, they simply provided 1,000 talents of frankincense a year. With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is Kuwait by Hyspaosines in 127 BCE. [16][17] Other archaeological assemblages cannot be brought clearly into larger context, such as the Samad Late Iron Age. Direct link to Jazlynn Valles 's post How would it have been to, Posted 3 years ago. The most recent detailed study of pre-Islamic Arabia is Arabs and Empires Before Islam, published by Oxford University Press in 2015. The Bedouins engaged for economic reason in horse-breeding, hunting, camel raising etc. He refers to the people in Greek as Khindynoi (Greek , Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of Maadynoi (Greek: , Arabic: Ma'ad) were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of Uqair. [35][36] Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the Dilmun civilization, which was conquered by the Assyrian Empire in 709 BCE. a. the masses. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). The politics of the Middle East during the 5 th and 6 th centuries CE were complex. Recently evidence has been discovered that Roman legions occupied Mada'in Saleh in the Hijaz mountains area of northwestern Arabia, increasing the extension of the "Arabia Petraea" province.[94]. Looking at the modern Arabic land, it is impossible to imagine there another religion except Islam, however, before the implementation of this religion people on this land worshiped to different Gods, idols, etc. Hatoon Ajwad al-Fassi, author of "Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Nabataea" stands with her book during an interview at her residence in Riyadh, April 20, 2008. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including Isaac of Nineveh, Dadisho Qatraya, Gabriel of Qatar and Ahob of Qatar. Economically (in terms of wealth) the Jews were the leaders of Arabia. Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor Justinian I (reigned 527565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. a. a sacrament. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110, George Mendenhall, "Qurayya and the Midianites," in, Peter J. Parr, "Further Reflections on Late Second Millennium Settlement in North West Arabia," in, Rothenberg, "Egyptian Chariots, Midianites from Hijaz/ Midian (Northwest Arabia) and Amalekites from the Negev in the Timna Mines: Rock drawings in the Ancient Copper Mines of the Arabah new aspects of the region's history II,", sfn error: no target: CITEREFLarsen1983 (, Gerrha, The Ancient City Of International Trade . [83] "Thamud", in the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pliny. It produced valuable incense and was known for its gold, , and the fierce independence of its inhabitants made it impossible to conquer, In addition to indigenous Arabian polytheism and some forms of Judaism and Christianity practiced in the, , there is evidence that other forms of monotheism were practiced there, .
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